UPSC Civil Services (Preliminary) Examination, 2026: Analysis (Questions 1-10)

1. Which one of the following Carnatic music ragas is similar to Raga Bilawal in Hindustani music?

(a) Nat Bhairavi

(b) Kamavardhini

(c) Hanumatodi

(d) Dheera Shankarabharanam

Core terms and standard equivalences 

• Carnatic music / Hindustani music: The two primary classical traditions of India (diverging historically around the medieval period). Widely covered in NCERT music textbooks (e.g., Class 11 Hindustani Sangeet Gayan Evam Vadan and related Sangeet books), government cultural resources (Ministry of Culture, Sangeet Natak Akademi materials), and newspapers.

• Raga Bilawal (Hindustani): The foundational Bilawal Thaat using all seven shuddha (natural) notes (Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni)—equivalent to the Western C major/Ionian scale. It is a basic reference scale in Hindustani theory.

• Dheera Shankarabharanam (also Shankarabharanam or Dhirashankarabharanam; Carnatic): The 29th Melakarta raga. It uses the identical set of all natural notes and is the direct structural equivalent of Bilawal. It is one of the most important/parent scales in Carnatic music (source of many janya ragas and compositions by the Carnatic Trinity). Frequently linked to India’s national anthem Jana Gana Mana.

• Nat Bhairavi (or Natabhairavi; Carnatic): The 20th Melakarta. Corresponds to the Hindustani Asavari Thaat (features komal/flat notes).

• Kamavardhini (also Pantuvarali; Carnatic): The 51st Melakarta. Corresponds roughly to the Hindustani Poorvi/Purvi Thaat (or raga Puriya Dhanashree).

• Hanumatodi (or Todi; Carnatic): The 8th Melakarta. Corresponds to the Hindustani Bhairavi Thaat (note: Carnatic Todi ≠ Hindustani Todi).

Correct answer to the question itself: (d) Dheera Shankarabharanam (identical all-natural note scale to Bilawal). The others use altered notes and map to different thaats. 

Where these appear (static sources to recent news)

• NCERT / educational materials: Concepts of Hindustani vs. Carnatic systems, thaats/Melakartas, and basic ragas (including Bilawal and Shankarabharanam equivalents) appear in Class 11 Sangeet textbooks and related music education resources under the CBSE/NCERT curriculum. Direct verbatim MCQ-style matches for this exact question are not typical of core NCERT prose, but the note-structure equivalences are standard school/college-level music theory. General discussions of major ragas occur in cultural chapters of social science or arts materials.

• Government websites / official cultural sources: Foundational Melakarta and thaat systems (including these named ragas) are documented in materials from the Ministry of Culture, Sangeet Natak Akademi, and related portals. They treat Shankarabharanam/Bilawal as the primary “natural” reference scale. No single “origin” page invents the equivalence—it is classical theory codified over centuries (e.g., references tracing to treatises and later systematizations by figures such as Venkatamakhin for Melakartas and Bhatkhande for thaats).

• The Hindu: Explicit mentions of the Shankarabharanam–Bilawal equivalence. A notable 2013 Friday Review article (“Catchy and classical”) states that Shankarabharanam (29th melakarta, also Dhirashankarabharanam) is the C major scale and “is known as Bilawal Thaat in Hindustani music.” Other pieces discuss comparative Carnatic–Hindustani styles and specific raga mappings.

• Indian Express / New Indian Express: Strong recent and static coverage linking the raga to the national anthem.

  • A 2023 opinion piece notes that Jana Gana Mana is based on the Carnatic raga Shankarabharanam, “which corresponds to Raag Bilawal in Hindustani music.”

  • A January 2026 “Faithline” column (Republic Day-timed) repeats that Shankarabharanam corresponds to the Bilawal thaat (and Western C major), describes its healing associations, and recounts legends. UPSC-oriented analyses of the 2026 Prelims question explicitly cite this as a contemporary newspaper source.

2. The artificially fixed rupee-sterling exchange rate prescribed by the Hilton-Young Commission (1926) was adopted by the British Government for which one of the following reasons?

(a) Aiding the flow of remittances from India and maintaining India's creditworthiness

(b) Providing support to Indian importers

(c) Encouraging export of cotton produce from India

(d) Preventing depreciation of the Rupee in terms of gold

Key proper nouns

• Hilton-Young Commission (1926): Formally the Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance. Appointed by the British Government in August 1925 and chaired by Lt. Commander (later Sir/Lord) Edward Hilton Young. It submitted its report in July 1926. Key recommendations included fixing the rupee-sterling exchange rate at 1 shilling 6 pence (1s 6d, or ₹15 = £1 — higher than the pre-war “natural” rate of 1s 4d favoured by many Indians), adopting a gold bullion standard, and establishing a central bank (this directly led to the Reserve Bank of India Act 1934 and the RBI’s founding in 1935). There was a notable dissent by Indian member Sir Purshotamdas Thakurdas against the high rate.

• British Government: The colonial administration (Government of India / Secretary of State) that adopted the Commission’s exchange-rate recommendation (formally implemented around 1927). The rate served imperial fiscal interests.

• Rupee-sterling exchange rate / artificially fixed rate: The 1s 6d peg. It was “artificial” because it overvalued the rupee relative to market conditions of the early 1920s and was defended by government intervention. This is central to the 1920s “Ratio Controversy.”

• Related contextual terms (Home Charges, remittances, creditworthiness): Home Charges were the large sterling obligations (pensions, military costs, interest on debt, India Office expenses, etc.) remitted annually from India to Britain. A stronger rupee reduced the number of rupees needed to buy the required sterling, easing the colonial budget and supporting India’s standing as a borrower in London.

Where these appear

Static / historical primary sources  

• Official 1926 Report of the Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance and the associated Minutes of Evidence (archived on Internet Archive, Central Secretariat Library / government repositories, and indianculture.gov.in).

• Contemporary yearbooks and economic histories from the 1920s–1930s.

• RBI’s own historical volumes and documents (rbidocs.rbi.org.in) treat the Commission as the direct precursor to the central bank and discuss the exchange-rate decision in detail.

NCERT and school/college textbooks  

• Not a headline topic in the core Class 11/12 History or Economics NCERT chapters that were sampled (colonial economy, drain of wealth, and currency issues are covered at a more general level). The specific Commission name and the 1s 6d controversy appear more frequently in detailed modern Indian economic history materials used for higher secondary or competitive-exam preparation rather than in the main NCERT prose.

Government websites  

• Prominently featured on the Reserve Bank of India website and in RBI official histories as the body whose recommendations created the institutional framework for modern Indian central banking and currency management.

• References also appear in broader colonial-administration and archival materials on government portals.

Newspapers (The Hindu, Indian Express, others) — static and recent  

• Static/archival: Contemporary 1926 coverage existed (e.g., summaries in papers of the era such as The Tribune). Later economic-history writing has repeatedly referenced the “ratio controversy.”

• Recent (especially 2026): The Financial Express published a notable April 2026 opinion piece marking the 100th anniversary of the Hilton Young Commission report and its role in paving the way for the RBI.

The Hindu: The newspaper published a historical piece titled "From The Hindu, September 16, 1925: The Currency Commission" on September 17, 2025 . This article reports on the Commission's initial arrangements, including the departure of its members for India and the plan to take evidence in the country for two months.

3. Consider the following statements :

I. Pali texts contain the first definite references to coins, e.g., kahapana, nikkha, kamsa, and kakanika.

II. The literary evidence from Pali texts is corroborated by archaeological evidence of punch-marked coins from many sites, most of them made of silver.

The above statements have been associated with which of the following?

1. Emergence of urban life

2. Transition to money economy

Select the answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Both statements are historically accurate, and the developments are linked to both the emergence of urban life and the transition to a money economy. The standard answer is therefore (c) Both 1 and 2.

Key proper nouns / terms 

• Pali texts: Early Buddhist literature in Pali (especially the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Jataka stories). These provide the earliest clear literary references to specific coin denominations and monetised transactions (wages, prices, loans, fines, trade).

• Kahapana (Pali form of Sanskrit karshapana): The standard silver (or sometimes copper) coin / unit of account, typically linked to punch-marked silver pieces weighing around 32 rattis (~3.4 g).

• Nikkha (Sanskrit nishka): A higher-value unit, often associated with gold or a multiple of other units; earlier Vedic references treat it more as an ornament/weight, but in Pali texts it functions as currency.

• Kamsa: A lower-value (often copper/bronze) denomination used in everyday transactions.

• Kakanika: One of the smallest fractional copper units.

• Punch-marked coins: The earliest Indian coins (mostly silver, some copper), irregular pieces of metal stamped with symbols (sun, six-armed symbol, animals, hills, etc.) rather than inscribed. Found archaeologically at many Gangetic and other sites from the 6th century BCE onward; they corroborate the literary terms.

These coin names and the punch-marked artefacts together mark the shift from predominantly barter/cattle-based exchange to a monetised system that supported markets, long-distance trade, taxation, and urban centres (nagaras / nigamas). 

Where they appear 

NCERT and standard textbooks

• Punch-marked coins, the rise of cities in the 6th century BCE (Second Urbanisation), trade, and merchants are covered in NCERT Class 6 (Our Pasts – I, chapters on new ideas/cities) and more detailed Class 11/12 History books on early states, economies, and the Mahajanapadas.

• The specific Pali coin terms (kahapana etc.) and the explicit literary–archaeological linkage appear more fully in advanced textbooks frequently used for UPSC, especially Upinder Singh’s A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (chapters on Second Urbanisation, coinage, and the economy). Coaching analyses of the 2026 question frequently cite this book as the near-verbatim source.

Government / academic / archival sources

• Archaeological Survey of India reports and numismatic studies document punch-marked coin hoards.

• Studies of early Buddhist literature and economic history (including IGNOU / eGyanKosh materials) discuss the Pali monetary vocabulary and its correlation with archaeological finds.

4. Which of the following temples has/have a Nagara-style shikhara?

1. Malegitti Shivalaya, Badami

2. Huchimalligudi Temple, Aihole

3. Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh

4. Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal

Select the answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 only (d) 3 and 4

Proper nouns and architectural classifications

Nagara-style architecture (North Indian) features a curvilinear shikhara (often rekha-prasada or latina type). Dravida style (South Indian) features a pyramidal/stepped vimana.

Accurate classifications based on standard sources:

• Malegitti Shivalaya, Badami (Early Chalukya, 7th century): Dravida-style (early mature Dravida with storeyed vimana, kutas, and shalas). Not Nagara.

• Huchimalligudi Temple (Huchimalli Gudi), Aihole (Early Chalukya, 6th–8th century): Experimental structure with a curvilinear rekha-prasada (Nagara-style) shikhara. Aihole is known as an architectural “laboratory” where both northern and southern forms were tried.

• Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh (Gupta period, early 6th century, Uttar Pradesh): Classic early Nagara temple. One of the earliest fully structural temples with a true curvilinear shikhara (latina/rekha-prasada type) and panchayatana plan. Widely regarded as foundational for the North Indian style.

• Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal (Early Chalukya, mid-8th century): Fully developed Dravida style (multi-storeyed vimana modelled on Pallava prototypes such as Kailasanatha, Kanchipuram). Pattadakal itself contains both Nagara and Dravida temples, but Virupaksha is Dravida.

Correct answer: (b) 2 and 3 (Huchimalligudi and Dashavatara).

Where these proper nouns appear

NCERT and school/college textbooks

• NCERT Class 11 An Introduction to Indian Art (Chapter on Temple Architecture and Sculpture) discusses Nagara vs. Dravida styles, Gupta-period temples (including early shikhara development), and Chalukyan experimentation at Aihole–Badami–Pattadakal. Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh is frequently cited as an early Nagara example; the Chalukya sites illustrate the blending and experimentation of styles.

• Broader coverage of temple architecture, Second Urbanisation-era to early medieval monuments, and regional styles appears in Class 11/12 History and Fine Arts materials.

Government / official heritage sites

• Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) pages and UNESCO World Heritage documentation for the Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (and the related Aihole–Badami tentative list) describe the architectural styles in detail, noting rekha-prasada (Nagara) vs. Dravida vimana forms and specific temples such as Virupaksha (Dravida) and experimental structures at Aihole (including Huchimalligudi).

• Incredible India and state tourism portals cover Malegitti Shivalaya, Aihole temples, Deogarh, and Pattadakal as major heritage sites.

• UNESCO listings emphasise Pattadakal as a harmonious blend of northern (Nagara) and southern (Dravida) forms.

English newspapers (The Hindu, Indian Express, and others)

• These temples appear regularly in heritage, travel, and culture sections as tourist and UNESCO sites. Coverage is typically descriptive (history, sculptures, conservation, visitor information) rather than technical style classification.

• Examples include features on Aihole as an “architectural laboratory,” Pattadakal’s mix of styles, Deogarh’s Gupta sculptures, and occasional conservation or tourism stories (e.g., Indian Express pieces on Hampi/Virupaksha or related Karnataka monuments).

5. Among the four main forms of existence of life recognized in Jainism, which one of the following is not included?

(a) Deva (gods)

(b) Yaksha (demi-gods)

(c) Mаnushya (humans)

(d) Tiryancha (animals and plants)

Proper nouns and key terms in the question, with sources of appearance

The four main forms (or destinies/gatis) of existence in Jainism are:

• Deva (heavenly/celestial beings or gods)

• Manushya (humans)

• Tiryancha (animals, plants, birds, insects, and other non-human, non-celestial life)

• Naraki / Nāraka (hellish or infernal beings)

Yaksha (demi-gods or attendant spirits) is not one of the four. Yakshas (and Yakshinis) appear in Jain tradition as guardian deities (śāsanadevatās) associated with the Tirthankaras; they are classified as a sub-category within the broader Deva realm (often under Vyantara devas), not as an independent form of existence or gati. The correct answer is therefore (b) Yaksha (demi-gods).

Key proper nouns / terms

• Jainism: The ancient Indian religion/philosophy emphasizing non-violence (ahimsa), karma, and liberation (moksha) of the soul (jīva).

• Deva: Celestial/heavenly beings; one of the four gatis. They enjoy long lives of pleasure due to meritorious karma but remain bound in saṃsāra.

• Yaksha: Semi-divine or attendant figures in Jain (and broader Indian) tradition; not a primary cosmic destiny.

• Manushya: Human beings; the only gati from which liberation is considered possible.

• Tiryancha: The broad category covering animals, plants, and lower life forms.

These four are collectively called chatur-gati (four destinies/forms of rebirth), determined by karma. The doctrine appears in core Jain texts such as the Tattvārtha Sūtra (by Umāsvāti) and the Āgamas.

Where they appear

NCERT and standard educational materials

• Jainism’s basic cosmology, the cycle of rebirth, and the classification of living beings are covered in NCERT Class 6–12 History and related culture chapters (e.g., discussions of Mahavira, the Tirthankaras, and core doctrines). The precise four-gati list (Deva–Manushya–Tiryancha–Naraki) and the exclusion of Yaksha are more detailed points found in higher-level or specialised philosophy sections and in standard UPSC reference books on ancient Indian religions.

Government / official / academic sources

• Jain philosophical sites, temple resources, and scholarly compilations (e.g., materials drawing on the Tattvārtha Sūtra) consistently list the four gatis. Government cultural portals and encyclopaedic resources on Indian philosophy reiterate the same classification. Yakshas appear in discussions of Jain iconography and temple art as attendant figures rather than as a separate realm of existence.

6. The Hallisalasya painting in the Bagh Caves represents:

(a) Ajoyous folk dance

(b) Buddha in a meditative pose

(c) The depiction of Shiva and Parvati on Kailasha

(d) Samudramanthan (Churning of the Ocean)

Proper nouns and key terms in the question, with sources

The correct answer is (a) A joyous folk dance.

Key proper nouns / terms

• Hallisalasya (also rendered Hallisaka / Hallisa-lasya): A classical Sanskrit term for a circular group/folk dance performed with graceful (lasya) movements, typically by a ring of dancers (often women) around a central musician. It is described in treatises such as the Natyashastra. In the Bagh Caves the mural shows dancers (sometimes with sticks, resembling later Dandiya/Garba forms) and accompanying musicians (e.g., hand-drum/hudukka, cymbals).

• Bagh Caves: A group of nine rock-cut Buddhist viharas (monasteries) in Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh (on the Bagheshwari/Baghani river, Vindhya range). Dated mainly to the 5th–6th century CE (late Gupta / early post-Gupta). Cave 4 is popularly called the Rang Mahal (“Palace of Colours”) because of its once-rich tempera murals. The Hallisalasya scene is the best-known surviving (or documented) painting there; many originals have deteriorated and some fragments/copies are now in museums (e.g., Gwalior).

• Other options’ subjects (Buddha in meditation, Shiva-Parvati on Kailasha, Samudramanthan) are standard iconographic themes found at other sites (Ajanta, Ellora, etc.) but are not the subject of the Hallisalasya mural, which is secular and festive.

The painting is valued as one of the rare early visual records of a named folk dance form and as evidence of secular/social themes appearing inside Buddhist monastic spaces alongside more religious imagery.

Where they appear

NCERT and standard textbooks

• Bagh Caves and their murals (often compared with Ajanta) appear in NCERT Class 11 Fine Arts / Art & Culture materials and in broader discussions of Gupta-period painting and rock-cut architecture. The specific name “Hallisalasya” and its identification as a joyous circular folk dance are more common in detailed art-history references and UPSC-oriented books than in the most basic NCERT chapters.

Government websites / official sources

• Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has conducted long-term conservation at the site; official descriptions note the Rang Mahal murals and the secular/dance scenes. Fragments and documentation are linked to state museums (e.g., Gujari Mahal, Gwalior). The site is a protected monument under ASI.

Newspapers (The Hindu, Indian Express, and other English dailies)

• Bagh Caves themselves receive occasional coverage in heritage, travel, and conservation stories (e.g., reports on ASI restoration, water seepage damage, or comparisons with Ajanta).

7. Consider the following statements relating to the use of the place-value system in India :

1. The earliest epigraphic use of the place-value system in India is found in the Mankani plates from Gujarat (AD 595-596).

2. In the ninth century, place-values become general in inscriptions all over India.

3. The place-values have been found in Sanskrit inscriptions in South-east Asia as early as the seventh century.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Proper nouns and key terms in the question, with sources

All three statements are treated as correct, so the answer is (d) 1, 2 and 3.

Key proper nouns / terms

• Place-value system: The decimal positional notation in which the value of a digit depends on its place (units, tens, hundreds, etc.), eventually including zero as a placeholder. This is India’s major contribution to mathematics; literary descriptions appear earlier (e.g., Aryabhata, c. 499 CE), but the question focuses on epigraphic (inscriptional) evidence.

• Mankani plates from Gujarat (AD 595-596): Also called the Sankheda or Mankani copper plates (of Taralasvamin / related to Kalachuri feudatories). Dated to Kalachuri era year 346 (= 595–596 CE). Widely cited as the earliest known dated epigraphic use of pure place-value notation in India for recording a number/date.

• Ninth century: The period by which place-value notation (with zero) became general/widespread in stone and copper-plate inscriptions across India (e.g., famous Gwalior Chaturbhuj temple inscription of 876 CE showing a clear zero).

• Sanskrit inscriptions in South-east Asia (seventh century): Early examples include the Sambor (K-127) stele in Cambodia and the Kedukan Bukit inscription in Sumatra (both c. 683 CE / Saka 604–605), which use Indian-derived decimal place-value numerals (sometimes with zero symbols) in Sanskrit or Sanskrit-influenced contexts. These demonstrate early cultural transmission via trade and religion.

Where they appear

NCERT and standard textbooks

• The invention and significance of the place-value system / zero as an Indian contribution appear in NCERT Class 6–12 history, science, and mathematics contexts (contributions of ancient India, Aryabhata, etc.).

• Specific epigraphic details (Mankani plates as the earliest dated Indian inscriptional evidence, 9th-century generalisation, and 7th-century Southeast Asian examples) are more characteristic of specialised ancient Indian history and history-of-science books used for UPSC.

Newspapers (The Hindu, Indian Express, and other English dailies)

• Mainstream coverage of the specific Mankani plates and the precise epigraphic timeline is limited. Broader stories on “India’s invention of zero / place-value system” and its global impact appear periodically in The Hindu and Indian Express (science, heritage, or education pages), especially around anniversaries or popular history features.

8. Consider the following statements about the archaeological findings in Harappan towns :

I. There is wide occurrence of spindle-whorls in the houses but absence of spinning wheels.

II. Weights and measurement scales, complete with graduations have been discovered.

III. There are houses built in large part with baked bricks, around relatively spacious courtyards, with their own wells, bathing platforms, and large rooms.

Which of the following inferences can be drawn from the above statements?

1. Statement I suggests that spinning was a laborious activity done at home.

2. Statement II suggests the extent of the scientific knowledge that the Harappans possessed.

3. Statement III suggests the emergence of a common property system.

Select the answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3

Proper nouns and key terms in the question, with sources

The correct answer is (a) 1 and 2 only.

• Inference 1 follows logically from Statement I (hand-spinning with spindle-whorls, without the later spinning wheel, was a labour-intensive household activity).

• Inference 2 follows from Statement II (standardised weights and graduated scales demonstrate advanced metrology and practical scientific knowledge).

• Inference 3 does not follow from Statement III (private houses with their own wells, bathing platforms, courtyards and rooms indicate private household ownership and possible social differentiation, not a common/communal property system).

Key proper nouns / archaeological terms

• Harappan towns / Harappan Civilization (also Indus Valley Civilization): Mature Harappan phase (~2600–1900 BCE). Major sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, etc.

• Spindle-whorls: Small perforated discs (usually terracotta, sometimes faience or shell) fitted to a hand spindle to help spin fibre (cotton, wool, etc.) into thread. Extremely common finds inside houses across Harappan sites.

• Spinning wheels: The mechanical spinning wheel (charkha) is a much later invention (appears in India in the early medieval period). Its absence in Harappan contexts is expected and confirms hand-spinning.

• Weights and measurement scales (with graduations): Highly standardised cubical chert weights (binary then decimal ratios) and graduated linear scales (e.g., ivory scale from Lothal, shell scale from Mohenjo-daro). Evidence of sophisticated metrology used in trade and construction.

• Baked (burnt) bricks, spacious courtyards, private wells, bathing platforms, large rooms: Standard features of Harappan domestic architecture — courtyard-centred houses of baked brick, often multi-roomed, with private water and sanitation facilities.

Where these appear

NCERT and standard textbooksThese details are drawn almost directly from NCERT Class 12 History, Themes in Indian History Part I, Chapter 1 – “Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation”. The chapter discusses:

• Spindle-whorls and textile production as household activities.

• Standardised weights and measures.

• House plans with courtyards, wells, and bathing platforms made of baked bricks.

Similar descriptions appear in other standard works (e.g., Upinder Singh’s A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India and older R.S. Sharma materials). The inferences tested in the question are classic textbook interpretations.

9. Which one of the following statements about the Eka Movement and Bardoli Satyagraha is correct?

(a) The Eka Movement was throughout supported and organized by the Congress while Bardoli Satyagraha was initially independent of Congress influence and was only in the last stages supported by the Congress.

(b) The Eka Movement was provided leadership by the taluqdars of Awadh, whereas the Bardoli Satyagraha was a movement of the landless labourers.

(c) The Bardoli Satyagraha was a campaign against the enhancement of land revenue, while the Eka Movement was a protest against excessive extraction of rents.

(d) The Eka Movement was located in the Varanasi and Mirzapur districts of the present-day U.P., while the Bardoli Satyagraha took place in Saurashtra.

Proper nouns and key terms in the question, with sources 

The correct statement is (c): The Bardoli Satyagraha was a campaign against the enhancement of land revenue, while the Eka Movement was a protest against excessive extraction of rents.

Key proper nouns / terms

• Eka Movement (also called Unity Movement): Peasant/tenant uprising of 1921–22 in the northern Awadh region of the United Provinces (present-day Uttar Pradesh). It was directed against excessive rents (often 50%+ above recorded rates), illegal cesses (nazrana), forced labour (begar), and eviction practices (bedakhli) by taluqdars and zamindars. Initially linked to Congress/Khilafat networks, it later came under more militant leadership (notably Madari Pasi, a lower-caste leader) and was suppressed by early 1922. Core districts: Hardoi, Bahraich, Sitapur, and Barabanki (not Varanasi or Mirzapur).

• Bardoli Satyagraha: 1928 no-tax campaign in Bardoli taluka of Surat district, Gujarat (Bombay Presidency; not Saurashtra). Led by Vallabhbhai Patel (who earned the title “Sardar” here), it protested a substantial enhancement of land revenue (officially around 22%, effectively higher in places) imposed by the colonial government despite agrarian distress. It was a disciplined, non-violent Congress-led movement that succeeded in forcing an inquiry (Broomfield-Maxwell Committee) and a major rollback of the hike.

• Congress (Indian National Congress): Involved differently in each — initially supportive of Eka but withdrew as it radicalised; fully organised and led Bardoli from the start.

• Taluqdars of Awadh: Large landlords in the Awadh region who were the primary targets of the Eka Movement (not its leaders).

• Varanasi and Mirzapur districts / U.P. / Saurashtra: Incorrect locations given in option (d). Eka was in northern Awadh districts of UP; Bardoli is in southern Gujarat (Surat), not the Saurashtra peninsula.

Where they appear

NCERT and standard textbooks

• Peasant movements, including the Awadh/Eka struggles and Bardoli Satyagraha, are covered in NCERT Class 12 Themes in Indian History (Part III) under the national movement and agrarian issues, as well as in modern India chapters on Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience.

• More detailed accounts appear in widely used UPSC sources such as Spectrum (A Brief History of Modern India, chapter on Peasant Movements 1857–1947), Bipan Chandra’s works, and IGNOU/eGyanKosh units on peasant struggles. These texts clearly distinguish Eka (rent protests against taluqdars in Awadh) from Bardoli (land-revenue protest against the colonial state in Gujarat).

Newspapers (The Hindu, Indian Express, and other English dailies)

• Broader themes (peasant movements of the 1920s, Patel’s role in Bardoli, Awadh agrarian tensions) surface periodically in The Hindu and Indian Express culture/history pages or special freedom-struggle series.

10. Consider the following statements about the Rigvedic period:

I. Irrigation from wells allowed agriculture to expand away from flood plains and strips on river margins into the present Punjab and Haryana plains having underground water levels reasonably close to the surface.

II. Draught-animal power was employed to draw up water out of the wells. Which of the following information support/supports the above statements?

1. There is evidence in the Rigveda of the use of ashma chakra (stone pulley wheel) and ahava (strapped wooden pails) to draw up water.

2. Mention has been made in the Rigveda of the use of implements like parashu/ kulisha (axe) and datra /sreni (sickle).

3. There is a history of the use of ox, even before the Rigveda, for ploughing the land and pulling the carts.

Select the answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 3 only

Proper nouns and key terms in the question, with sources of appearance

The statements concern well-based irrigation enabling expansion into the Punjab–Haryana plains and the use of draught-animal power for lifting water. The supporting information is evaluated as follows in standard analyses: Information 1 (ashma chakra + ahava) supports both statements; Information 3 (pre-Rigvedic use of oxen) supports Statement II; Information 2 (axes and sickles) relates to general agriculture/land-clearing/harvesting but does not specifically support well irrigation or animal-powered water-lifting. The commonly accepted answer is therefore (c) 1 and 3 only.

Key proper nouns / terms

• Rigvedic period / Rigveda: The earliest Vedic text (a collection of hymns) and the historical period associated with its composition. It provides the primary literary evidence for Early Vedic society, economy, and technology in the north-western Indian subcontinent (especially the Punjab region).

• Ashma chakra: Interpreted as a “stone pulley wheel” (ashma = stone; chakra = wheel/disc). Cited in certain readings of Rigvedic verses (e.g., around X.93 and X.101) as a device at the well-head for lifting water.

• Ahava: Interpreted as “strapped wooden pails” or buckets (sometimes linked to related terms like kosa or varatra for the rope/leather strap). Used with the pulley system to draw water from wells (kupa or avata).

• Parashu / kulisha: Axe (parashu is the common term; kulisha can refer to an axe or thunderbolt-like implement). Mentioned in the Rigveda in contexts of cutting or clearing.

• Datra / sreni: Sickle or reaping implement (datra is a sickle; sreni can refer to a row/line or related harvesting tool). Evidence of harvesting tools.

• Draught-animal power / ox: Domesticated cattle used for heavy work. Their use for ploughing and cart-pulling is attested archaeologically before the Rigvedic period (e.g., Harappan evidence) and continues in Vedic texts.

These terms relate to lift irrigation from wells, which is argued to have allowed cultivation beyond immediate river floodplains into areas with accessible groundwater. 

Where they appear

NCERT and standard textbooks

• The Rigveda, Early Vedic economy (pastoral + limited agriculture), ploughing with oxen, and basic tools appear in NCERT Class 6–12 History books (e.g., sections on the Vedic period, Early Societies, and themes of agriculture/settlement). Wells and irrigation are treated more generally.

• The highly specific interpretations of “ashma chakra” (stone pulley) and “ahava” (strapped pails) as well-lifting devices are not standard NCERT phrasing. They appear in more detailed academic or specialised treatments of Vedic technology and are frequently referenced in advanced UPSC-oriented books.